How Does the Role of Women Affect the Novel? Essay

In this essay I will be discussing and analysing how the role, or roles, of women affect the novel ‘Of Mice and Men’. The novel is set in the 1930’s during ‘The Great Depression’ and features three women: Curley’s wife, who lives on the ranch and is representative of the stereotypical suppressed wife, Susy the brothel owner who represents the role of women as solely sexual objects and whores, and lastly, Aunt Clara – a mother figure to Lennie. These are the three archetypal women in the novel and in this essay I will be evaluating their influence on the novel. It is not immediately apparent that women are not vital to the novel. However, the three women help the reader understand how life was for them. Curley’s wife confuses and plays with Lennie’s immature and insane mind with her flirtatious comments, and seductive body language. ‘She moved closer to him’ suggests their actions became out of control. Curley’s wife could have lived her dream as an actress but instead she stood by Curley, ‘I coulda went with the shows’ Her actions demonstrate her love for Curley at the time and how she gave up her dream for him. Curley’s wife allows us to appreciate the role of women in the novel and women at that time that had to suffer from great loneliness in the ranch, outnumbered by a large number of men. ‘Think I like to stay in that 6 by 4 house listening to Curley?’ Her pitiful relationship with Curley or even the agony of her loneliness results in her playful, engaging behaviour. Curley’s wife 1 resembles the stereotypical wife on a ranch in the 1930’s. Deciding on whether his wife is a tart or victim is significant to understanding the real message behind the novel and enables the reader to understand the role of women on such ranches. Susy is immensely different in contrast to Curley’s wife as she is a working woman, owner of a brothel so she is surrounded by friends of both sexes constantly ‘Old Susy’s a laugh’ Unlike Curley’s wife, Susy isn’t as pivotal to the plot but through her we can see and grasp the typical working woman in the 1930’s furthermore the sexual discrimination suffered where women were valued as mere sexual objects. Aunt Clara presents a completely contrasting character to Curley’s wife and Susy. Firstly she presents herself as maternal character ‘her hands on her hips, and she frowned disapprovingly at him.’ this suggests, Aunt Clara must have looked after Lennie like a mother figure when he was younger. ‘I told you’ This is a demonstration of her guiding influence over Lennie and how she was an important character in his life. Aunt Clara is a typical mother and helps the reader value the role of a mother and how it influences the novel. All three women are crucial in the development of the plot and have a great impact on the reader. Their roles help to raise awareness of the women during the ‘Great Depression.’ Women can be seen in a triad of roles; wife, mother and whore. The novel exposes sexual discrimination, sexism and the hierarchy of male over female on the social ladder.

Customer Buying Behavior Essays

Customer Buying Behavior Essays Customer Buying Behavior Essay Customer Buying Behavior Essay Click vs. Brick (1 page limit: use approximate space provided) |Name: | | |Student Number: | | |Tutorial day and time: | | List the products that you have searched for information online in the past 12 months and BOLD those you actually bought online. |Sports outfits (Real Madrid Football Club Away Kit) | |Play Station video games Pre-Orders (Fifa 14, GTAV, Batman Arkham Origins) | |Furniture (Office Chair) | |Mobile phone devices (iPhone 5 and Samsung S4) | |What other product categories are often bought online? |Entertainment Products such as Movies and Musical CDs/DVDs | |Air Passage such as Tickets and frequent flyers Miles | |Books and Textbooks such as Amazon. com | |Health and Diet Products such as Protein Concentrate and diet formulas | |Musical Instruments such as Guitars and Drums | |List the characteristics that make a product more suitable to online purchasing? |For products that are NOT available in stores nearby or in the same country. | |The discounted prices and promotions for online purchasing | |On line facilities that allows the consumer to search and compare the product’s attributes and prices against similar products | |Save time and the convenience of making or changing orders, and the returning or refunding policies | |The online purchasing is best suitable for Software products that allows the consumer for a trail period prior to purchasing the actual license | |List the potential advantages of online (vs offline) purchasing to an individual? |Discounted prices and promotions | |Doing shopping on consumers own time and convenience (24 hours service at any place and from a computer or mobile) | |Faster way to find t he suitable and best product on line rather than window shopping in Malls | |Allowing the person to take his/her own time to make a decision and talk to friends and read reviews or testimonials and compare against similar | |products | |Consumers receive alerts and information about new publications, promotions, releases, and Sale via Mobile text messages, or emails | |Avoid cross selling and persuasion from sales people and talking consumers into buying new products or unneeded accessories | |What characteristics (demographic and psychographic) make a person more likely to buy online vs offline? | |Such characteristics are summarized in a study The Impact of Perceived Channel Utilities, Shopping Orientations, and Demographics on the Consumer’s | |Online Buying Behavior conducted by Li, Kuo and Russell (1999) on the following link http://jcmc. indiana. edu/vol5/issue2/hairong. tml#Introduction | | | |for four categories are as follows: | |Gender behaviour: Male are 76% occasi onal and frequent buyers, while Female are 69% | |Age range behaviour: 30 – 39 age group are 78% occasional and frequent buyers, 50 – 65 age group are 77%, over 65 age group are 76% | |Education background behaviour: Graduate Degree are 83% occasional and frequent buyers, College Graduate are 81%, and some graduate study are 78% | |Annual Income behaviour: more than 80 thousands are 77% occasional and frequent buyers, between 50 and 80 thousands are 76%, and between 30 and 50 | |thousands are 73% | [pic]

Celta assignment

The receptive skill chosen for this assignment is reading, and the authentic material used for the purpose of developing this skill is an article entitled, Greenwich is packed full of Londons most popular attractions [1], which will be related to the productive skill of writing. The learners reside in London and come from EU countries (mostly Italy), and motives for learning the English language vary. The age factor of the students may suggest different needs and cognitive skills, however all the students are competent to a pre-intermediate level of the English language. The authentic text chosen is an article from the Metro newspaper online website, (metro. co. uk). The text is about attractions in Greenwich and I believe that this text will interest learners because it gives information on how to explore London in new ways they may have not been aware of, as well as further demographic exposure of their surroundings. This text will also provide students the opportunity to get together and practise their English as most of the text has proper names of places, which will help students identify the capitalization of Proper Nouns for a writing task for example. Receptive Skills The aims of this lesson are: Detailed reading or intensive reading, as Jim Scrivener (Learning Teaching, p. 264) states, reading texts closely and carefully with the intention of gaining understanding of as much detail as possible. 1 Gist reading skimming the written text to get a general idea of what it is about 2, as Jeremy Harmer states (How to Teach English, p. 101). Task Summary Setting the context: The topic for the lesson is London attractions in Greenwich. As a lead in, to get the students interested in the material, I would ask them to look at the title of the text, Greenwich is packed full of Londons most popular attractions, and in groups write down what these popular attractions may be. The resulting group discussions would have the students forming ideas on attractions in London, which correlates to the content of the text. This will act as a good transition into the following reading tasks. Although there are plenty of new vocabulary items in the article, I think students would not have any significant difficulties in grasping the overall meaning of the text. Detailed reading task For the detailed reading task, the students would read through the article and give short true or false answers to comprehension about the attractions there are to explore in the Greenwich area of London. This task focuses on the sub-skill of reading for detail, as the students will need to find the attractions listed in the article and why the statements are true or false. Rationale: The purpose of this activity is to inform students of the attractions London has to offer within Greenwich. To encourage the reading I would give the students an ample amount of time for this activity. Students would peer-check and receive class feedback. The language and phrases derived from this activity may be useful for a following writing activity. Gist reading task This task will require the students to gist read the title of the article and describe what they think the article is about. Rationale: This task focuses on the reading sub-skill of skimming for gist. The reason for this activity is to ensure that the students understand the general topic of the text and this may also generate more interest to read the text further. To complete this task effectively, students would need to skim the title to get a general understanding of the article. The students would have 3 minutes for this activity and discuss in pairs or groups. An enforced time limit ensures that just conclude a general summary of what the article may be about. Productive Skills Writing task 1: The students will write a short/brief description of popular attractions in their own country or town, using the article as an example. Rationale: The writing task should allow students to be able to write about something that they can relate to, modeling texts similar to the article read. Writing task 2: Students will write a short informal e-mail to a friend, giving information about an attraction they have visited in London. Learners will inform their friends of a place where they ate and drank and places they shopped and an attraction such as architecture for example. Rationale: This task is a real-life scenario of communicating, and provides a good opportunity for students to practice and develop their skills. BIBLIOGRAPHY Books 1 Jim Scrivener, Learning Teaching: The Essential Guide to English Language Teaching, MacMillan, 2010 2 Jeremy Harmer, How to teach English: New Edition, Pearson Education Limited, 2007 Online [1]. http://metro. co. uk/2012/09/07/greenwich-is-packed-full-of-londons-most-popular-attractions-567671/, November 30, 2013 [online] Available at: Greenwich is packed full of London’s most popular attractions Friday 7 Sep 2012 2:23 pm The insider’s guide to the capital’s hidden gems visits Greenwich – an area where there’s plenty of time to explore. The National Maritime Museum is one of London’s leading lights (Pic: File) Chances are, if you’re in Greenwich, you came to see the Cutty Sark, the Royal Naval Museum or to stand with your legs either side of the Meridian Line at the Royal Observatory. These are some of London’s most popular attractions – and for good reason – but they are by no means all Greenwich has to offer. Venture off the tourist trail and you’ll find a winding, historic neighbourhood with some great places to eat, drink and shop. The main strip, around Cutty Sark DLR station, has a seaside vibe. It’s popular with visitors and the famous covered Greenwich Market (Tue to Sun, 10am-5. 30pm, shopgreenwich. co. uk/greenwich-market ) is likely to be one of your first stops. One half sells fairly standard market fair, including graffiti prints, jewellery and clothing from far flung corners of the world. The other half comprises food stalls (on Wednesdays and weekends) which are a great alternative to the clutch of tourist-orientated eateries and lacklustre chains on Greenwich Church Street. Exotic, cheap and extremely tasty, the queues are worth it for Ethiopian stews, pad Thai or sushi. Unfortunately, there isn’t really anywhere to sit, so either head around the corner for a bench view of the Cutty Sark or, better still, lose the crowds altogether by heading to the picturesque park behind St Alfege Church, just a stone’s throw from the market. In terms of shopping, Greenwich has a surprising amount of gems. In the main melee, you’ll find the reliable second-hand charity bookshop Oxfam Books (2 College Approach, Tel: 020 8305 1656), as well as Music Video Exchange (23 Greenwich Church Street, Tel: 020 8858 8898), both good for a rummage. Further treasure can be found around the corner and down the road at Greenwich High Road’s Clocktower Market (Sat and Sun, 10am-5pm, clocktowermarket. co. uk ). You’ll come across hard-to-find CDs, tatty old beer signs and even some decent vintage clothing. However, if you’ve already bought enough treats, next to the market, you’ll find films of a largely artistic nature being screened at the Greenwich Picturehouse (180 Greenwich High Road, Tel: 0871 902 5732, picturehouses. co. uk ). In need of sustenance? If the weather is good, a few places further south on Royal Hill are good for a sit-down away from the visitor furore. The Greenwich Union (56 Royal Hill, Tel: 020 8692 6258, greenwichunion. com ) and Richard I (52-54 Royal Hill, Tel: 020 8692 2996, richardthefirst. co. uk ) are popular with locals and both have tables out where you can nurse a pint while watching the world go by – very slowly. Or, continuing in the same direction, you’ll find the Guildford Arms (55 Guildford Grove, Tel: 020 8691 6293, theguildfordarms. co. uk ), another pub, this time with a beautiful, hidden garden. For tea and cake, Royal Teas (76 Royal Hill, Tel: 020 8691 7240, royalteascafe. co. uk ) takes some beating. Or pull up a tables at Buenos Aires Cafe (86 Royal Hill, Tel: 020 8488 6764, buenosairesltd. com ), which is the perfect place for a couple of empanadas and a coffee. If those clouds are looking a bit ominous, back towards the action you’ll find La Fleur (18 Royal Hill, Tel; 020 8305 1772). Part plant shop, part cafe, it’s essentially a cafe in a greenhouse. Back in the thick of it, by Cutty Sark station you’ll find plenty of folk heading to riverside pubs. Try The Trafalgar Tavern (6 Park Row, Tel: 020 8858 2909, trafalgartavern. co. uk ) and The Cutty Sark Tavern (4-6 Ballast Quay, Tel: 020 8858 3146, cuttysarktavern. co. uk ), both of which have views of the river. Truth be told, the vista isn’t that pretty, so you’re better off venturing across Greenwich Park to the Royal Observatory on One Tree Hill. The hill is no relation to the US TV show. In fact, you couldn’t get more British. Trek to the top for a panorama of Greenwich and the skyscrapers of Docklands behind it. APPENDIX A: Receptive skills Detailed reading task Instructions: Read the statements below and decide if they are true or false. Write T for true and F for false in the space provided. a) Cutty Sark is not in Greenwich. __ b) You can buy food from the food stalls on Wednesday and weekends. __ c) There are no pubs in Greenwich. __ d) There are no places to shop in Greenwich. __ e) You can eat and drink water and crackers at the Royal Teas__ f) The Royal Observatory is near a park__ Answer sheet detailed reading a) F False b) T- True c) F False d) F False e) F False f) T True Gist reading task Instructions Read the title of article and describe what you think the article is about. Answer sheet gist reading The article is about Londons most popular attractions in Greenwich. APPENDIX B: Productive skills Writing task 1: Write a short/brief description of a popular attraction in your own country or town. In your description include: A famous place tourists can visit, a place to eat and describe the food (Remember that the place of the name must be in capital letter) - Writing Task 2 Your friend Antonio has e-mailed you and asked you to write him about a tourist attraction in the city of London. Write an e-mail to Antonio telling him: ? (Where to go for a meal and drinks) (Where to shop and what they sell) (What attraction to see and why they should see this)

An Email Asking for Recommendation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

An Email Asking for Recommendation - Essay Example This author stresses that his professor might know him well and have a regard of his capabilities in order to write a recommendation letter for him. "I am a person with the lively curiosity in business and seeking a guidance on competing effectively for internship in the Farmer School of Business in Miami University. I am interested in the organization called CABO, which is the China-America Business Organization that works as a networking program between the students from China and other countries. They are studying business in the Farmer School of Business and have an interest in doing business in China. A CABO organization works with other multi-national business institutions. Its staff cooperate with the other professionals in order to increase the level of education of its members outside the class studies. A CABO organization tries to create such opportunities for students so they could succeed in international business; it creates job opportunities, offers internship programs in China and the U.S. and facilitates communication between students from China and U.S. For me personally, it is a great opportunity to develop my professional and personal sides. Please let me know if you are comfortable to discuss any questions and provide me with the further information, which will help you to write your recommendation."

Sustainability in BMW Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Sustainability in BMW - Assignment Example The organization provided social programs which include road safety teaching, programs against the HIV/AIDS and youngster and children education. The social programs serve as a marketing strategy because the organization creates awareness of the products to the public. Creation of road safety teaching promotes the economy and increases sales volume hence huge profit. BMW provides services to the community as well as promoting a business. The sustainability plan for BMW handles environmental, social and economic interest of the company. In respect to the environment, the organization receives supplies from trusted dealers. Economically, BMW is fives the employee best working condition in order to be productive. BMW also takes part in the social program and ensure that the customer does not have social problems. BMW is doing the best to meet people’s triple bottom line component. The organization provides a good working environment for the employees in order for them to give the best results (Feuchtmayr, 2011). BMW for economic purposes it sells the product and provides salary for the employee after making a profit. In short, it creates employment opportunity and contributes to the economic growth. In respect to the environment, BMW provides traffic education in the UK for people to minimize traffic jam and air pollution. It produces vehicles which do not pollute sound and air hence saving the environment. In respect to social, BMW provides education of HIV/AIDs to members of the public (Feuchtmayr, 2011).

Leadership journal 2- change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Leadership journal 2- change - Essay Example Likewise, the response to evaluating the change in the work setting would necessitate including a change theory and detailing how the use of the theory did or would have helped the implementation of the change. The Change Transition in the Work Setting One is currently working as a registered nurse with a Nursing and Rehabilitation Health Care Facility. The change that currently occurred in this work setting is transitioning from manual or paper-based documentation to computer-based documentation system. Due to the fast paced-technological developments that ensued in the current century, the impetus for change to transcend from paper-based documentation to computer-based documentation through the electronic medical record (EMR) was deemed inevitable. Previous Paper-Based Documentation System The system that had been used to document crucial information, assessment, and interventions provided to patients were traditionally recorded through charting. This means that a patient’s chart is used to record all pertinent information since the patient’s entry in the health care setting for confinement. Several health care practitioners and professionals use the patients’ charts to document their observation, recommended intervention, and diverse health-related information to record the patients’ progress throughout the confined period. Several variables or factors paved the way for the paper based documentation system to exhibit inefficiencies in the health care setting. For one, the volume of patients that have significantly increased through time could not appropriately contain all the information through a patient’s chart. In addition, the number of diagnostic or laboratory tests, and recommended interventions by different health care professionals make recording tedious and complex. As such, there were evident disadvantages found to be related to paper-based documentation; including it being considered a â€Å"poor repository of p atient information†¦ also the tasks associated with such record keeping consume up to 38 percent of the physician's time associated with an outpatient visit† (Tang, LaRosa, & Gorden, 1999, par. 5). Likewise, it is prone to wear and tear; have greater tendencies for encountering difficulties in updating and keeping in file through time; missing information or record; as well as ineligble handwriting could significantly affect and influence the quality and accuracy of patient care that would be provided on a timely manner. Proposed Electronic or Computer-Based Documentation The change that is currently being implemented in using a computer-based patient record (CPR) or documentation system. According to previous studies, the objective or goal of the CPR is â€Å"supporting patient care and improving the quality of care as well as enhancing the productivity of the health care personnel while reducing the costs of health care delivery† (Rodriguez, Borges, Rodriguez, An garita, & Munoz, n.d., p. 1). The CPR therefore addresses all the weaknesses of the paper-based documentation system, particularly limiting or preventing errors in transcribing ineligible handwriting; preventing records being lost; and doing away with filing the patients’ records in repositories which could be destroyed or ineffectively maintained. The Manner by Which the Change was Received Several health car

Nigerian Construction Industry Performance

Nigerian Construction Industry Performance Chapter Two of this research comprises a comprehensive review of literature relating to the Nigerian construction industry and its performance, Value Management and its application in the construction industry. It is noted that much of the literature relating to Nigeria is dated, however this can only add to the value and relevance of primary data collected in this research and it provides a background and historic basis from which progress in the industry may be measured. 2.1 THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY The construction industry the world over is often perceived to be the life wire of its respective economy as it cuts across all aspects of human activities (Ayangade, 2009) and the Nigerian construction industry is not an exception to this. Its contribution ranges from enabling the procurement of goods and services to the provision of buildings and other infrastructure, thereby providing employment opportunities to its labour force while contributing immensely to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). According to Ayangade (2009), the contribution of the Nigerian construction industry is yet to measure up to those of the western world like the UK and Australia due to its developing nature among other reasons discussed below. As noted by the same researcher (Ayangade, 2009), whereas the construction industries of other developed countries are responsible for about 22% of their respective GDPs, the Nigerian case is different as it contributes slightly below 16% to its economy. However, this could be said to be complemented by the relatively higher employment (20%) it provides for its whooping 140 million citizens compared to the 12% as in the case of developed countries. Mbamali (2004) attributed this to relatively lower use of mechanization within construction in Nigeria and the high dependency of the Nigerian economy on the oil sector. Obiegbu (2005) noted that the construction industry, unlike other sectors, is a complex one and requires articulate professionals who are ready to live up to its clients expectations. Clients in the construction industry may either be private individuals including corporate bodies or public organisations which include the government. In Nigeria the federal government is often seen to be involved in the most complex projects with about 38.4% of the market (Ayangade, 2005). This is followed by the state government which is responsible for about 19.2% of the projects in the industry, though there is still some form of partnering between different classes of clients. The players in the industry are a disparate group of individuals often assembled into temporary teams and may comprise of quantity surveyors, architects, Engineers, Estate surveyors Valuers, project managers, contractors and sub-contractors, suppliers, labourers and artisans. Activities in the construction industry are carried out on a project basis and could be within an organisation or part of a programme (..reference). The Project Management Institute (PMI) (2004) defined a project as a temporary endeavour undertaken to create a unique product, service or result. The product, in the context of the construction industry, may be a building, services installation or other infrastructural project. Hence the relevant mix of professionals is often assembled together with the aim of achieving this goal. This group of professionals is expected to possess the relevant skills, knowledge, tools and techniques to achieve the project goals. The application of these variables, skills, knowledge, tools and techniques, with the aim achieving the required objective is referred to as project management (PMI, 2004). According to Obiegbu (2005), the contractual procurement strategy, which he defined as a basis for clients action in defining the procedure to be followed fr om the inception of the project to handover, plays an important role in the performance of the industry. Some of the contractual arrangements which are often referred to as procurement routes may include, but are not limited to, the following: Traditional procurement route Design and build Management contracts 2.1.1 Nature and Performance of the Nigerian Construction Industry the economic resources often wasted in cost and time overruns, substandard work and shoddy workmanship, client-contractor-practitioners acrimonious relationships and non-performance of projects as envisaged by clients and end users Olatunje (2009) The above quote highlights the perception of the Nigerian construction industry presented by Olatunje (2009) highlights issues researched by other authors such as cost and time overruns (Aniekwu and Okpala, 1998, Oyedele Tham, 2007, Dlakwa Culpin, 1990), project abandonment (Sonuga et al, 2002, Adams, 1997) and both client and contractor dissatisfaction (Olatunje, 2009). The quote also echoes findings from Egans (1998) research into the UK construction industry. The Egan report has been formative in the UK construction industry but also for the Nigerian industry, which is fashioned after the UKs (Mbamali, et al., 2005, Oyedele Tham, 2007). The Nigerian construction industry has similar contractual arrangements as the industry in Britain which has been found to be more unsuitable for developing industries like Nigeria than it is for its own industry (Edmonds Miles, 1983, Sonuga et al, 2002). The most common procurement route used in the Nigerian construction industry is the traditional route (Ayangade, 2009). This implies that much risk is placed on the Architect to deliver the project as he is left to advise, organise and lead other project consultants to conceive and develop the project design. This procurement route has faced a lot of criticism including the separation of the design stage from actual construction. Wells (1986) found that the divorce of design from construction and the use of competitive tendering, which is based on lowest cost, are noted constraints that affect the performance of the Nigerian construction industry. Aniekwu and Okpala (1988) referred to these as systemic issues in the industry which result from the application of contractual arrangements unsuited to the Nigerian industry. Some of these issues may be accommodated by appropriate conditions of contract but these factors are considered to be withholding the development of the industry. Aniekwu and Okpala (1988) also identified some of the structural issues affecting the industry to include access to finance and lack of proper communication among consultants, contractors and the client at the early stages the project and during construction. Oyodele and Tham (2005) noted that lack of proper communication in the industry, boosted by its high level of fragmentation, has left it awash it with delay, cost and time overruns in addition to the disturbing rate of fluctuation in the prices of materials offered by the economy. The findings of the Building Research Establishment associated more than 50% of the construction defects with mistakes in project drawings and documentation due to inadequate interaction among the proj ect professionals. This is in line with the recommendation of the National Economic Development Office (1987) on the need for more accurate designs in the industry as this is responsible for nearly two-thirds of poor quality work in the industry. 2.1.2 Project Management in the Nigerian Construction Industry Odusemi et al, (2003) found that Project Management is still in its early stages of development in the Nigerian construction industry. The service is offered but only alongside other consultancy services. This is not assisted by the fact that PM is learned experientially and is not represented by established professional bodies, although many consultants are members of the Association of Project Management (APM) and the Project Management Institute (PMI). This has left the industry struggling with the challenges of satisfying the needs of its clients and the public as a whole. As noted by Oyodale and Tham (2005), the complexities presented by the industry can only be tackled by its professionals. Aibinu and Jagboro (2002) concluded that, considering the contribution of the construction industry to its nations economy, improved services in the form of greater efficiency and timeliness would certainly yield a positive impact. The research called on the need for innovative research that will improve management skills and ability, buildability, design quality, integration and communication and client focus so as to deliver value for money. 2.2 VALUE MANAGEMENT 2.2.1 Value Concept Historically, value is viewed from an economic perspective, hence its expression as a ratio of costs to benefits (Kelly et al, 2004). The concept of value is based on the relationship between satisfying needs and the expectations and the resources required to achieve them (British Standard, 2000). The above statement implies that for value to be correctly defined there ought to be some needs that are desired to be satisfied; which are then weighed against the required and available resources to achieve them. This however does not equate reduced cost to enhanced value. For instance, as illustrated in figure 2.1 below, a project manager may decide to commit more resources in the short run (which would obviously increase cost) with an intention of increasing his revenue (improved value) in the long run. Value can thus be increased when the clients satisfaction increases and the cost in terms of resources either diminishes, or increases to a lesser extent (Tassinari (1985, p37). Figure 2.1 showing the relationship between resources and customer satisfaction. (Adapted from British Standard, 2000) A need is that which is desired or necessary to perform a particular function and will differ depending on the nature of the client or the perspective from which it is defined (British Standard, 2000). This explains why value is often seen to be a subjective term (Thiry, 1997). According to Kelly et al (2004) producers and dealers may both view value as the price of a physical object while the consumers or users would see value from its performance perspective which changes with time. McGeorge and Palmer (2002) illustrate this using a modern home which has a little battery operated radio in addition to internet, phone, and television. Of course, the small radio would be perceived to have little or no value until a snow storm cuts the house off from the electric power supply which will render the radio as the only source of communication. The above example by McGeorge and Palmer (2002) shows the effect time and innovation can have on a clients interpretation of value and how it can change given a particular situation. The small battery operated radio was initially of very high value when it was the only available option but diminished with the invention and/or acquisition of internet, phone and television by the household. However its appreciation changed when the situation change. According to Zimmerman and Hart (1982) as cited in Thiry (1997), if a design has not changed in 18 years, the product is either excellent or management has failed to improve it. However one knows that neither of these two conditions mentioned in the above statement is obtainable in the present construction industry due to its highly competitive nature. Most times clients interpretation of value is when it meets or exceeds their expectations. Kelly and Male (2007) described this using the Kanos model as shown in figure 2.3 below. Figure 2.2 Kanos Model, reproduced from Kelly and Male, 2007 As shown on Kanos model above, there are three levels of satisfaction factors; basic, performance and delighter, each having some effects on the quality characteristics including customers satisfaction. According to Kelly and Male (2007), Kanos model (figure 2.2) does not only portray the importance of achieving a clients immediate expectations from a project but also the need to go the extra mile to improve it beyond the clients expectations as this gives them a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"delighter satisfaction. The possible benefit from this is that projects would not become obsolete within a short period of its completion as its performance would still exceed the customers demand, thereby assuring the client of continued good value for his money. Kanos model also creates room for improved projects through innovative services and products as what was once a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"delighter over time goes down to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"basic and forms a baseline below which the client becomes dissatisfied. Acc ording to Harty (2009) one of the driving forces behind the value management concept is that it encourages innovation through research which is in line with the recommendations of Egan (1998) to improve the performance of the construction industry. 2.2.2 Defining the Client Value System Clients in the construction industry have been described as a heterogeneous group made up of private or public organisations operating in different environments with diverse reasons for their existence (Kelly et al 2007). Some of these are multinational organisations competing at the global level who already have reputations to protect while some are small upcoming organisations who are still very much profit driven. Viewed from another perspective, some of these clients are more experienced than others irrespective of their sizes or the sector in which they operate. It then follows that clients are unique in their own ways and have individual, respective requirements which determine their needs and hence what is of value to them. This is referred to as the client value system. Harmonizing and prioritizing these diverse views of stakeholders in a particular project at the project briefing stage sets the clients value system and ensures that value for money (VfM) is achieved, (OGC, 20 07). The client value system is thus seen as a basis for making decisions as to the allocation and use of resources available for a project, thereby addressing the usual mismatch between the clients actual intent and his capability (Thiry, 1996). According to Kelly et al (2004, p157) one of the most important considerations of value management is the recognition of the uniqueness of each clients value system. This creates demand for the construction industry as it is focused on the customers by making explicit what value means to the each individual client. Sequel to this, Kelly et al (2004) identified some measurable criteria which form a typical construction client value system to include time, capital costs, operating cost, environment, exchange, flexibility, esteem, comfort and politics. 2.2.2.1 Time Refers to the period from when the project was conceptualized to the period when it is completed and absorbed into the clients organisation. Often time is assessed on a continuum from when it is of essence to the point where it could be compromised (Kelly et al, 2004). For instance a project to build a sports bar for the 2010 world cup delivered just a day past the commencement of the tournament, may drastically affect its value. Hence it is necessary to determine what time means to the client. 2.2.2.2 Capital expenditure (CAPEX) Are those costs associated with the capital cost of a project, measured on a continuum between the budget being considered tight and not able to be exceeded to there being flexibility in budgeting (Kelly et al 2004). Simply put, CAPEX is what it cost to put a project on ground, from inception to handover. However, Elinwa and Joshua (2001) stated that it is sometimes difficult to separate the capital costs of some projects from its operating costs due the platform on which it was procured. For example a primary health centre to be procured through PFI, it may not be so easy to pin point the capital costs as it forms part of the total lease package. 2.2.2.3 Operating expenditure (OPEX) Spending on construction projects is not one off expenditure as the building requires to be operated, maintained and repaired throughout the life span of the building. According to Kelly et al (2004), OPEX can be defined as those costs associated with operation and maintenance of a completed project as it becomes a part of the clients organization; measured by the extent to which it is minimized to its point of being flexible. This depends on the use to which a building is being put to. For instance where the building is for residential purpose, the operating costs may include utilities, cleaning, repairs, maintenance, caretaker and security. This may be expanded to include photocopying and internet facilities and other office services for a commercial development. 2.2.2.4 Environment This defines how important achieving an environmentally friendly project is to the client. Kelly et al (2004) defined environment as the extent to which the project results in a sympathetic approach to its immediate and extended physical environments in terms of energy consumed in putting it up and in operating it. The yardstick here is the level to which the project complies with the Kyoto Agreement and Agenda 21 issues including other environmental regulations. This explains a clients interest in having a sustainable development which is resources conscious. 2.2.2.5 Exchange or resale This refers to the monetary value of the project were it to be sold, rented or valued as part of an organisations assets. Where the project cannot be traded on the open market value or there is no intention to resell ab initio, this will be indicated in the organisations value system (Kelly et al, 2004). The continuum here is between the returns from the project being of importance to the returns being of not of much or no importance to the client. 2.2.2.6 Flexibility As recommended by Egan (1998), there is a need for construction projects to be at a par with improvements in technology and changes in market demand. Hence flexibility as a value criterion is the extent to which a project parameter has to reflect this ever changing environment at its design stage (Kelly et al 2004). For instance, the nature of the healthcare industry involves constant improvements in technology and hence healthcare facilities must be compatible with the incorporation of these changes. However, flexibility depends on the nature of the project and is measured between being very easy to change its function to being impossible. 2.2.2.7 Esteem This refers to the amount of immediate resources that a client wants to forgo for attributes like prestige, aesthetic and appearance rather than performance (Thiry, 1996). Some projects may not be viable based on other value criteria but of high value to the client on esteem grounds. For instance, some projects undertaken by some countries could be just aimed at creating awareness and putting the countrys name on the map as in the case of the worlds tallest building in Dubai. 2.2.2.8 Comfort In the context of a building this refers to the physical and psychological comfort of the building as a place for working and living with its influence on human performance (Kelly et al 2004). Simply put, it refers to the ease with which the project supports the business carried out in it or other uses to which it is being put. 2.2.2.9 Politics This is external to projects and refers to the level of resources that the client wants to commit to the community, popularity and good neighbour issues which often determines how important they are to him (Kelly and Male, 2007). This is measured by the motive to be popular with the local community or not having any concern with them at all. In a study conducted to determine clients assessment of architects performance in Nigeria in terms of delivering value for money, Lukmon et al (2007), identified a set of 28 similar but correlated criteria which they grouped under quality of project, buildability, client focus and management skills. 2.2.3 Historical Background of Value Management A project is defined as an undertaking aimed at achieving a specific objective usually measured in terms of performance, budget and schedule, (Morris and Hough 1987). Hence project is an investment undertaken to add value to the core business of a client (Kelly et al, 2004). Value Management, as a management technique, offers the most logical approach to delivering VfM to clients (Shen and Liu 2003); Kelly and Male, 2007). Its strength may be attributed to its approach of identifying and/or verifying a clients value system among the relevant stakeholders at an early stage of the project, so that these may be reflected in the project design. According to Thiry (1996) the origins of VM can be traced back to the 1940s in what he described as more for less in the USA manufacturing industry. During World War II Lawrence Miles, an Engineer with General Electric, was faced with some strategic problems in producing some components which were easily produced in the past. As a way around this Miles, who before then has been dissatisfied with the cost of production in the industry, came to realise that most times circumstantial innovations result in better performance and reduced cost. This prompted Miles to ask what function does this component perform and how else can we perform that function (Dallas, 2006). Miles questions gave rise to the concept of function analysis which was aimed at identifying and analysing the intended functions to determine if the materials for the proposed solution can be substituted with less expensive ones. Not long after, people started to adopt the technique of focusing on the intended function not the process which soon developed into what is today referred to as Value Analysis (VA). In many cases people perceived the technique as a cost reduction technique at the expense of improved functionality which is a total misconception of the technique (Kelly and Male, 1993). However, the technique was so successful that in less than 10 years it was adopted in the US Department of Defence to deliver VfM and from then on other industries in the USA have adapted it for application at different phases of their projects. Value Management (VM) as it came to be called, refers to a structured management of the total value equation throughout all stages of the project (Kelly et al; 2004). Figure 2.3 shows different stages and segments of the development of value management. Figure 2.3 The metamorphosis of Value Management, adapted from Dallas (2006) As illustrated in figure 2.3, Miles action in the 1940s was focused on getting alternative materials or components to perform the required function which was the beginning of value management. This was later perceived as a cost cutting technique before the adoption of a holistic structured approach to improving value (Kelly and Male, 1993). Following the development and positive impacts of value management in the US manufacturing sector, the technique was adopted into the US construction industry as a means of delivering VfM to its clients in the 1960s. Fong and Shen (2000) noted that VM was first introduced in the US construction industry in 1968 and its application in the Chinese construction industry is recorded to occur 10 years later (Shen and Liu, 2004). According to Kelly et al (2004), the value management technique was first used in the UK 30 years after it was introduced in the US manufacturing industry at the Xerox headquarters, an American company. From then on VM has grown to become widely accepted in different parts of the world as a logical means to achieve value for money (Fong, 2004; Kelly et al, 2004; Ellis et al, 2004) including in Africa (Bowen et al, 2008). 2.2.4 Benefits of Value management Value management is a proactive, problem solving service, which maximizes the functional value of a project through a structured team which makes explicit the clients value system and weights further decisions against the value system.(Kelly et al, 1998). VM aims to justify the place of a project in a clients organisation at an early stage and develops a strategic plan against which it is built on to deliver value for money. VM is often misconstrued to being a cost reduction exercise, hence seen to be synonymous with value engineering. According to Dallas (2006) cost reduction, which is an obvious output of a value management exercise, cannot after all be seen as its main motive. As illustrated in figure 2.4 below, VM incorporates value engineering and value analysis in its value definition exercise and so could be perceived to be a universal set for the three concepts. Figure 2.4 shows the relationship between Value Management, Value Engineering and Value Analysis, adapted from Connaughton and Green (1996) VM looks at a project from a holistic point of view (time, whole life cost and performance) in the context of its usage which properly fits in the definition of value for money (). Connaughton and Green (1996) identified the following benefits which a properly executed Value Management exercise can yield: The need for the project is made explicit and verified by available data. The project objectives are identified and discussed openly to reach a consensus. Rational, explicit and measurable decisions are guaranteed after alternatives have been considered. Project designs are developed from the agreed framework, which are evaluated on the basis of the agreed performance criteria. There is greater participation from stakeholders which guarantees their buy in. There is improved communication and teamwork spirit throughout the project. Improved innovation with better quality definition in the project. Unnecessary cost is eliminated which may lead to a reduction in cost. Properly executed, value management when employed at the early stages of a project can help eliminate unnecessary cost to the tune of 10% to 25% savings on the proposed capital cost of project (Ellis et al, 2004). This is considered to be reasonable compared to the actual cost of the VM exercise, which is estimated at about 0.5% to 1% of the projects cost (REF). 2.3 APPLICATION OF VALUE MANAGEMENT IN THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY Any construction project should be only commissioned following a careful analysis of needs since failure to think through project requirements will almost certainly cause problems for subsequent design and construction stages. For that reason, the Construction Industry Board recommends that value management be incorporated as an integral part of the construction process (Baldwin 1998). The value management approach may differ between countries depending on the nature of their construction industry or the chosen procurement route in a particular project. However, this does not dispute the fact that the VM technique can be gainfully applied at any stage of a construction project, as clients/contractors are often faced with the challenge of finding an optimum balance between cost, time, quality and performance criteria (Fong 2004). In the UK, the USA, Australia and other countries where the value management technique is well established, VM is applied through a process referred to as the value management study (British Standard, 2000) or value management process (Kelly et al; 1998) via a workshop approach facilitated by value manager or experienced team facilitator. A value management study, as defined in BS12947, involves the application of value management to a particular business case identified within a VM programme. Baldwin (1998, as cited in Kelly et al, 1998) noted that VM is not a question of brainstorming and problem solving, rather it requires a structured methodology in order to have the required outcome. Figure 2.5 overleaf depicts a simple VM study plan developed for the European Value Management standard (British Standard, 2000). Figure 2.5 shows a simple VM study plan, adapted from the British Standard (2000) The VM study plan represents a systematic approach to ensuring that appropriate techniques and skills are utilized in the value study. According to the British Standard (2000), as shown in the VM study plan above, a VM study should aim to achieve the following objectives; Identify the objectives and targets the intended study is set to achieve; as this may differ from the project objectives. Formulate the relevant approach needed to achieve the objectives, including team selection and training (where necessary). Identify the relevant functions which will lead to the achievement of the objectives. Identify some basis for measuring changes in performance and use of resources. Set targets for performance and use of resources for the above identified functions in a way peculiar to the organisations. Identify innovative ways of arriving at the targets through the application of the above methods. Evaluate the proposal for improvement. Implement the proposal which have been chosen by the decision makers Monitor and measure the outcomes in relation to the target. Feedback results for continuous improvement of VM programme. There are different approaches to value management studies in different countries with regards to team compositions and workshop procedure. For instance in the American construction industry, VM studies are typically carried out by an independent workshop team who will have to sell their ideas to the project team later on. This is different from the UK practice where the existing project team is fully involved in the study. In a benchmarking exercise carried by Kelly et al (1998), the use of an existing project team in conducting value management studies appeared to be the preferred approach due to the following advantages accruable to the project; Cost of the study is relatively minimized Time spent project briefing the study participants is reduced Waste of resources on previously considered but failed ideas are eliminated Offers better opportunity for developing project teams during the workshop More opportunity to explore all available options Implementation is more guaranteed as team members have already accepted ideas which they generated as a team, thereby reducing the development period. However, generic VM workshop strives to add value to a project by considering the project on its whole life basis. Kelly et al (1998) who were in support of this view identified the five key value opportunities at which VM technique can be employed to include pre-brief workshop, proper workshop, sketch design workshop, final working design and implementation workshop. 2.3.1 Pre-brief workshop The Value Manager or Facilitator meets with the project sponsor/client to clarify the place of the project in his organisation or programme. This will give the two parties a better understanding of the functional expectations of the project so as to help form a basis for the project briefing workshop and the clients value system. This may yield solution/s to the clients problem, for example, whether a new building is needed or renovation of existing one will achieve the same objectives. 2.3.2 Proper workshop Proceeds from the identified solution in the pre-brief phase and aims to identify the clients value system. This workshop offers an opportunity to facilitate the project team, understand their dynamics and guide them to achieve the desired goal. Though it is expected that the workshop has an agenda, this should not be too detailed, thereby making the timings tight, as this may divert the focus from achieving the objectives of the workshop to exhausting the items on the agenda. The tactical skills of the Facilitator are very much needed at this stage of the workshop if its participants are to be productive and should be as brief and focused as pos